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Behaviour Management In The Classroom
One ongoing challenge for all teachers is control of the classroom. Even in the best schools, pupil behaviour is sometimes less than desirable, and the effective teacher will be able to manage pupils' actions in the classroom setting.
Most methods of behaviour management have roots in one of two theories of human behaviour. One theory, behaviourism, contends that actions can be controlled through positive and negative reinforcers in the environment.
Behaviour management methods based on this theory reward good behaviour and punish bad behaviour. Humanism, on the other hand, contends that actions result from conscious choices made by each person. Methods based on this theory emphasise self-supportive behaviour and thought, in addition to self-efficacy and self-esteem. Where behaviourism sees actions as a response, humanism sees actions as a decision.
Behaviourism emphasises behaviour modification and short-term action change. It is a strong approach in that it is relatively effective, but also requires the constant or perceived presence of the provider of positive and negative reinforcement to be effective in the long-term. Humanism, in contrast, advocates behaviour change through self-awareness and conscious decision to pursue different behaviours. As such, it should be equally influencing whether authority figures are present or not, and therefore should be more effective in the long-term.
Both theories have their positive and negative aspects, and more effective and less effective uses. However, behaviour management programmes based on the above theories, regardless of which type of theory employed, are used by teachers and administrators to manage pupil behaviour in the school environment and therefore an important subject of study.
BEHAVIOURISM
Behaviour management methods based in behaviourism advocate rewarding pupils when they conform to school expectations and punishing them when they do not. The external environment is heavily emphasised in behaviourism, with positive reinforcement provided by teachers to encourage favourable behaviour (Skinner 1985, 293). Rewards such as stickers, extra play time, praise, or being designated teacher's helper are examples of positive reinforcers. Negative reinforcement is similarly used by teachers to discourage inappropriate behaviour (Skinner 1985, 293). Punishments such as withholding recess, writing students' names on the board, or requiring extra work act as negative reinforcers.
Most teachers learn behaviourist methods in their preservice training. For example, many teachers are instructed by their professors to ignore some inappropriate behaviours (Obenchain and Taylor 205, 9). The theoretical reason behind this response is that if the student is not rewarded by teacher attention, he or she will eventually stop the behaviour. This planned ignoring is called the principal of extinction by behavioural theorists. The principal of extinction states that if in a given situation a person exhibits a certain behaviour and that behaviour is not reinforced, the behaviour will lessen when that given situation is again presented (Obenchain and Taylor 205, 9).
However, negative reinforcement can also work against good classroom management. For example, teachers are often directed to remove particularly unruly students from the classroom. If the student in fact wishes to be removed from the classroom, the teacher is playing into the principle of escape conditioning. The principle of escape conditioning states that in a given situation, removal of an unpleasant stimulus will increase the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again in that situation (Obenchain and Taylor 205, 9).
Whilst these are typically used in an individual approach, with each child earning his or her rewards and punishments, behaviourism is also foundational to many whole school programmes for behavioural management. One example of such a programme is the Good Student Game, an easy-to-implement intervention designed to help elementary students stay on task (Babyak, Luze and Kamps 2000, 216). In the game, students are divided into teams that compete against each other to have the best-behaved students. Teachers, either individually or school-wide, define the specific behaviors they wish to see improved, then decide period for playing the game and the rewards that will be used. Students, again either by class or school-wide, are taught how the game is played and divided into teams. Students who break a rule receive a mark against their team (negative reinforcement). At the end of the period set for the game, all teams with fewer marks than the pre-established number win and receive rewards (positive reinforcement). The game can be played team against team or class against class (Babyak, Luze and Kamps 2000, 216).
In another typical programme, school staff developed five basic rules of behaviour, be respectful, be responsible, hands and feet to self, follow directions, and be there/be ready (Sack 2000, 14). The school staff provided rewards for those students meeting behavior goals, most often tickets that students could redeem for various treats like extended lunch periods or snacks. This approach provided both individual (students earned their own rewards) and whole school (the entire school participated and students throughout the school were reported to be motivated by both seeing others succeed and positive peer pressure) (Sack 2000, 14). Negative reinforcements such as office referrals, and suspensions are still practised at the school in addition to the positive reinforcement / reward programme (Sack 2000, 14).
Critics of behaviourism-based classroom management stress that positive reinforcement can establish an expectation of payout for learning, and negative reinforcement can damage a student's confidence and self-esteem. For example, Watt and Higgins (1999, 347) laud the removal of spanking as punishment from school practise, and caution against physical or humiliating punishments that they hold can damage a child's emotional or social development (Watt and Higgins 1999, 347).
HUMANISM
Humanism-based methods, in contrast, focus on inner motivation and behavioural choice as appropriate behavioural management foundations. Humanistic approaches emphasise education the whole student (Matus 1999, 305). Humanistic teaching is pupil-centered; it means recognizing students as individuals, respecting their differences, and trying to help them in their personal, social, emotional and academic lives (Matus 1999, 305). Such methods are held to promote listening and communication, foster awareness of self, improve student confidence and self-esteem, and encourage respect for others. Proponents of these methods assert educators must strive to understand the needs of their students, assess and assist them in making self-supportive rather than self-defeating choices. Teachers are expected to seek to assist students in behavioural change through the internalisation and practise of awareness and management of self (Olive 2004, 46, 44). Children learn to recognise how their emotions and actions are affected by others, and how the emotions and actions of others affect them they are prepared to experiment with new behaviours and they have the opportunity to reflect on what these new experiences mean for them (Lang 1998, 8). A humanistic approach to behaviour management considers not only what a child is doing but also why a child is demonstrating a particular behaviour, as compared to reactive and externally-focused behaviourism-based models of intervention (Olive 2004, 43).
Humanistic behavioural management encourages positive action based upon thorough and logical assessment of the child and the presenting circumstances (Olive 2004, 44). It holds that consideration of the students' thinking and feelings are foundational to encouraging positive behaviour; teachers should listen and observe prior to taking disciplinary action or reacting to behavioural issues (Olive 2004, 46). The teacher is always supposed to be asking, What purpose does this behaviour serve for this child; in other words, what need is the behaviour meeting? What am I hoping to accomplish in responding in this way? What do I believe the child needs from me in order to make the best behavioural decisions for him- or herself? (Olive 2004, 46).
Critics of humanism-based classroom management assert that allowing the student's internal state determine behaviour is not effective. Some contend it leads to decrease in standards, as shown in Matus' (1999, 306) assertion that even when work is substandard, an effective classroom manager can find some aspect of the student's work to compliment. Although the product may be poor, a teacher can usually reward the effort that went into an assignment. Others hold such methods place freedom of expression and students feeling good above actually dealing with discipline problems (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348).
Given such foundations, humanist-based classroom management methods generally favor an individual approach. There are, however, whole school approaches to applying humanistic behavioural management programmes. Whole school programmes advocate communication, such as in Circle Time, and conformity to the moral judgements and standards dictated by society through self-examination and conscious choices (Watt and Higgins 1999, 347).
One of the most widely-used humanist-based management activities is called Circle Time, a behaviour management activity designed to effectively challenge and motivate the class group to share in the aim of promoting more positive behaviour (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348).
This means that it focuses on issues concerning self-esteem and positive behaviour, and promotes communication between teachers and, more importantly, between teachers and their classes (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348). Students are encouraged to take part in planning the implementation of Circle Time, and are encouraged once participating in the Circle Time activity to continue sharing their thoughts and feelings with the group throughout Circle Time sessions (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348). Circle Time is basically a period when students and teachers gather together, sit in a circle, and talk to and listen to each other as Circle members share ideas, recent experiences, and the like. There are several simple rules for Circle participation, such as that everyone gets a turn (Lang 1998, 4). Certain assumptions also help to govern Circle Time activities, such as that human beings are basically good, awareness brings responsibility, and listening is uniquely powerful in building awareness (Lang 1998, 5).
One whole school programme based on humanist thought that has shown significant success in Scotland is Turn Your School Round (TYSR), a package designed to combat indiscipline by involving children in the system (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348). The programme focuses on developing a sense of ownership amongst both teachers and students, so everyone regards their behaviour as truly theirs, and accepts appropriate responsibility for their actions (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348). Implemented school-wide, the programme includes a Circle Time activity and several other humanist-based activities, such as posting of Golden Rule statements and support and review discussions (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348).
In the UK, better behaviour, enhanced self-esteem, and improved interpersonal relationships are the outcomes most often identified by those writing about and those practising circle time and similar behavioural management techniques (Lang 1998, 8). Practises such as circle sessions can be used in conjunction with any classroom activity, and promote tolerance and respect for the self and for others (Watt and Higgins 1999, 348).
SCHOOL POLICY
Policy at my school begins as though it were humanism-based, with statements such as It is a primary aim of our school that every member of the school community feels valued and respected and [rules are a way of] promoting good relationships, so that people can work together with the common purpose of helping everyone learn. However, shortly into the policy one sees that it is strongly behaviourist in its content. Section 2, Rewards and Punishments, lays out the positive and negative reinforcements the school uses. Positive reinforcements include praise, house points, certificates, merits, and recognition at assemblies. As section 1.6 states, The school rewards good behaviour, as it believes that this will develop an ethos of kindness and cooperation. Negative reinforcements include changing seats, redoing work, reprimands, isolation, punishments, and meetings with parents. Section 2.3 begins, The school employs a number of sanctions to enforce the school rules. Policy further lays out the role of each adult (teacher, head teacher, parents, and governors) in enforcing school rules using positive and negative reinforcements.
PERSONAL CLASSROOM EXPERIENCE
Personally, I have found benefit from both behaviourism-based and humanism-based methods, and believe I use a combination of the two in my own classroom management. Positively and negatively reinforcing behaviour, despite what critics say about it, works in most cases. Most students, for example, will produce high quality work or complete work on time if they receive a reward for doing so, and are much more motivated to complete tasks when a reward is involved. Similarly, the typical student does not want to be punished, and will avoid behaviours if they know that these will lead to punishment of some kind.
If the classroom teacher clearly lays out the rules, including rewards and punishments that accompany these rules, most students will behave appropriately to receive rewards and avoid punishments. In addition, when a team of students, the class, or the entire school stands to be rewarded or punished for specific behaviours, most students will exert peer pressure on any non-compliant student to facilitate rewards being earned and punishments avoided.
It is always helpful, however, to try to discover why a student is behaving in a certain way, to listen to the student and promote communication, and to be considerate of mitigating circumstances. For example, if a student has an unstable living situation that prevents them from getting adequate sleep, they may not pay attention in class. In this case, rewarding paying attention and punishing not paying attention would not be particularly helpful; it would be likely to add further stress to the life of a child in an already stressful situation.
Similarly, there are times when involving the whole school in behaviour monitoring, with students influenced by peer pressure to comply with behavioural expectations, is an effective means of accomplishing a behavioural management goal. However, one must take into consideration the effect of the self-esteem and confidence of the individual student subjected to such peer pressure. Does forcing compliance result in the most productive long-term result? Often I believe that a whole school approach of fostering understanding, rather than manipulating behaviour, is in the best interest of the children involved. Such practise teaches them to be aware of their actions, the actions of others, and self-manage their responses through a positive choice of behaviour.
Behaviour controlled by rewards and punishments is unlikely to continue when the rewards and punishments are removed. For example, if a student is bullying another student in my presence, he is subject to the enforcement of school rules. If he does so when I am not around, it will likely become one student's word against another. Typically, students will behave appropriately when they know a teacher or other authority figure is present, but will not continue to behave appropriately if left on their own when behaviourist pupil management is employed. In this approach behaviour management is achieved by external forces, and these external forces can be and sometimes are removed.
In a humanist-based approach, modification to behaviour occurs because the student becomes more self-aware, and thoughtfully considers his behaviour, its repercussions for him, and its effect on others and his environment. He then makes a decision regarding actions based on these internal motivators. If the student has chosen appropriate behaviours in front of a teacher or governor, then, he has done so based on internal motivation, and is likely to behave in a similar manner if no teacher or governor is around. This makes behaviour influenced by humanism-based methods more likely to become long-term practise for students, and therefore more greatly benefit them.
A final consideration is the assignment of responsibility in the two systems. Behaviourism, although usually effective, to some extent shifts responsibility for behaviour to the person or persons in control of reinforcements. I have the power, at least to some extent, to decide what is appropriate and inappropriate behaviour and attach positive and negative reinforcers to different behaviours. However, by doing so I assume some of the responsibility for students' ultimate actions. If I let them talk out of turn or disrespect me when it is just we in the classroom, I cannot then punish them if they repeat such behaviour in front of the head teacher or a governor.
Although the humanism-based approach appears softer at the outset, it does require students to accept responsibility for their actions. Their behaviours are their choice; they chose to act in a certain way or to respond in a certain way. They are similarly responsible to try to understand the actions of others, which requires thoughtful observation, consideration for other students as well as school staff, and communication and listening actions towards others. Such actions promote better social skills and are more likely to move students toward becoming independent, responsible adults.
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In conclusion, there are many ways by which teachers attempt behaviour management in the classroom. While a variety of methods and approaches exist, two of the better-known foundational theories on which these are based are behaviourism and humanism. Both can be employed across a whole school or with individual students. While behaviourism-based methods are usually effective and often simpler than humanism-based methods, I personally feel from my own observation and practise that a humanism-based is more effective at addressing significant behavioural management issues with individual students, and has better long-term results.
REFERENCES
Alberto, P. and Troutman, A.1995. Applied behavior analysis for teachers, 4th edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Babyak, A., Luze, G. and Kamps, D. 2000. The good student game: Behavior management for diverse classrooms. Intervention in School & Clinic, Mar2000, 35(4):216-223.
Lang, P. 1998. Getting Round to Clarity. What Do We Mean by Circle Time? Pastoral Care, Sept1998, 3-10.
Matus, D. E. 1999. Humanism and Effective Urban Secondary Classroom Management. The Clearing House, May/Jun1999, 72(5):305-307.
Obenchain, K. and Taylor, S. 2005. Behavior Management: Making It Work in Middle and Secondary Schools. The Clearing House, Sept/Oct2005, 79(1):7-11.
Olive, E.C. 2004. Practical Tools for Positive Behavior Facilitation. Reclaiming Children and Youth, Spring2004, 13(1):43-47.
Sack, J.L. 2000. Oh, Behave. Teacher Magazine, Jan2000, 11(4):14-15.
Skinner, B.F. 1985. Cognitive science and behaviourism. British Journal of Psychology, Aug85, 76(3):291-301.
Watt, S. and Higgins, C. 1999. Using Behaviour Management Packages as a Stepping Stone from School to Society: A Scottish Evaluation of `Turn Your School Round'. Children & Society, 13:346-364.
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