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Some people have a high subjective fear of crime while their actual risk of becoming a victim of crime is low. Critically discuss this apparent paradox...
It is data like that produced from British Crime Surveys over the years that has raised an apparent paradox in fear of crime research (for example, Hales, Henderson, Collins & Becher, 2000).
One group in society that has been particularly associated with high levels of fear of crime is the elderly. And yet, while the elderly appear to have a higher fear of crime, the data on crimes committed shows that they are actually at a lower risk than younger people (Hales et al., 2000). Similarly, women have been found to have a greater fear of crime coupled with a lower actual risk. Why, researchers have asked, in particular groups, does fear of crime appear to go up as the actual risk goes down?
Early researchers found an association between fear of crime and age. Clemente & Kleinman (1976), in a national survey, found there was a significant difference in fear of crime between those over and under 65. Ortega & Myles (1987), analysed data from eight areas of Chicago in order to look at the combined effects of race, gender and age. They found a positive relationship between age and fear of crime - as well as other interactions. This relationship has been accounted for in the literature in a number of ways. For example, Stiles, Halim & Kaplan (2003) assess the idea of increased vulnerability as a causative factor, especially in those with physical limitations.
A more recent line of research, however, has begun to show that this higher fear of crime in the elderly might be unfounded. Ferraro & LeGrange (1987) argue that many of the studies into the fear of crime have poorly operationalised the idea. Using a different, and more concrete, method of measurement they found that fear of crime was actually no greater in the elderly than it was in the rest of the general population. Ferraro & LeGrange (1987) argue that it is the measurement of a 'formless fear' which tends to produce higher results in the elderly.
This discussion reflects the problem about the definition of 'fear of crime'. It has been found that people respond differently depending on the type of crime they are asked about - whether it is property crime, violent crime or a more nebulous concept like personal safety. Acierno, Rheingold, Resnick & Kilpatrick (2004) draw a distinction between the risk of being victimised and the feeling about the crime if it did happen, claiming that many previous studies had confounded these two variables. Acierno et al. (2004) cite Ferraro & LeGrange (1992) who make a further distinction in types of crime between property and personal. Gabriel & Greve (2003) claim that a better way of measuring fear of crime is by splitting the concept into three parts: cognitions, behaviours and affect. In addition, they argue that a more appropriate methodology for investigation involves splitting down crime into its various types - a continuation of Ferraro & LeGrange's (1992) ideas.
Other methodological problems about early research on age and fear of crime are pointed out by Chadee & Ditton (2003) along with a more equivocal view. They argue that there is now a balance in the research between that showing a connection between age and fear of crime, and that that does not. At the most basic level, different researchers have different conceptions of what old might mean. Some take it to mean over 52 while, at the other end of the spectrum, many take it to mean over 65. As Greve (1998) has shown, this variation in the age range can make the difference between finding a significant result and not. Chadee & Ditton (2003) also draw attention to the method of statistical analysis used in much of the research. When univariate analysis is applied to the data, an association is often found, whereas when a multivariate analysis is applied, no significant association is found. Chadee & Ditton (2003) replicated Ferraro & LeGrange's (1992) work, but using data obtained from a sample of the population in Trinidad. Again, they did replicate the earlier findings and found no association between age and fear of crime.
Aside from age, the most commonly investigated covariable illustrating the paradox found for fear of crime is gender. Women have consistently been found to have a higher fear of crime than men, despite the crime statistics showing they have a lower chance of being a victim (e.g. Wilcox, Quesenberry & Jones, 2003). Researchers have argued, however, that some aspects of the apparent paradox reduce its strength. For example, Balkin (1979) argues that women have a lower exposure to crime because of their lifestyles. For this reason the figures for actual victimisation should be adjusted upwards.
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In conclusion, the two groups of the population that have most commonly been associated with the apparent paradox in fear of crime, are separated by age and gender. The evidence from more recent research on age has shown that some of the earlier findings can be partially discounted. Methodological reasons have been targeted and a more specific operationalisation of the concept of fear of crime has not produced the paradox. Similarly, the evidence on gender, only briefly touched on here, has also been criticised for methodological reasons. The picture emerging from some of the more recent research, then, suggests that there might be no paradox to explain.
References
Acierno, R., Rheingold, A. A., Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G.. (2004) Predictors of fear of crime in older adults. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18(3), 385-96.
Balkin, S. (1979). Victimization rates, safety and fear of crime. Social Problems, 26(3), 343-358.
Chadee, D., Ditton, J. (2003) Are Older People Most Afraid of Crime? Revisiting Ferraro and LaGrange in Trinidad. British Journal of Criminology, 43, 417-433.
Clemente, F., Kleinman, M. D. (1976) Fear of crime among the aged. The Gerontologist, 16, 207–210.
Ferraro, K. F., LeGrange, R. L. (1987). The elderly’s fear of crime: a critical examination of the research. Research on Aging, 9, 372–391.
Ferraro, K. F., LeGrange, R. L. (1992). Are older people most afraid of crime? Reconsidering age differences in fear of victimization. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 47, S233–S244.
Gabriel, U., Greve, W. (2003). The psychology of fear of crime. Conceptual and methodological perspectives. British Journal of Criminology, 43, 594-608.
Greve, W. (1998). Fear of crime among the elderly: Foresight, not fright. International Review of Victimology, 5, 277-309
Hales, J., Henderson, L., Collins, D., Becher, H. (2000). 2000 British Crime Survey (England and Wales): technical report. London: National Centre for Social Research.
Ortega, S. L., Myles, J. L. (1987). Race and gender effects on the fear of crime: an interactive model with age. Criminology, 25, 133–152.
Stiles, B. L., Halim, S. Kaplan, H. B. (2003) Fear of Crime among Individuals with Physical Limitations, Criminal Justice Review, 28(2), 232-253
Wilcox, P., Quesenberry, N., Jones, S. (2003). The built environment and community crime risk interpretation. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40(3), 322-345.
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